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blogTitle:'struts中几种常用的Action',
blogAbstract:'除了基本的Action 之外， Struts 还提供了几个其他类型的Action ，这些Action 大大\r\n丰富了Struts 的功能。下面介绍如下儿个常用的Action 。\r\n• DispatchAction: 能同时完成多个Action 功能的Action 。\r\n• ForwardActon: 该类用来整合Struts 和其他业务逻辑组件，通常只对请求作有效\r\n性检查。\r\n• IncludeAction: 用于引入其他的资源和页面。',
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推荐过这篇日志的人：
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他们还推荐了：
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转载记录：
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{list wl as x}{/list}18:40:57【 转载互联网】 作者： &&|&责编：李强
&&& &为了解决用户可能碰到关于"&s:iterator&一行进行操作。"相关的问题，突袭网经过收集整理为用户提供相关的解决办法，请注意，解决办法仅供参考，不代表本网同意其意见,如有任何问题请与本网联系。"&s:iterator&一行进行操作。"相关的详细问题如下:/td align=&&&td align=&&
cellspacing=&bluef&tr&/ name=&mainId&38&;&gt.gif&td&bluef&bluef& border=&
&a& height=&quot.;&gt.html&
class=&quot:submit value=&
&equipmentManager_*; theme=& align=&& background=&
&s; align=&&td align=&quot:submit&center& /
&td&/td&;table&center&center&&&table width=&&s;td&
theme=&table&455& /主机编号&s;& align=&
&/td align=&&s;/td&&#47:submit value=&
&&center&b&&s;&&td width=&quot:textfield name=&b&294&tr&1& method=& class=&&显示器编号&/modfiy&
&lt:property value=&&td align=&下一页&simple&
&/ cellpadding=&/images/&a href=&&name&tr&
&&/td align=&td& background=&td&company_03.jpg&center&
&note&/&尾页&
& &bottom&&&s;&
&&&bottom_02;td&td&&gt.&#47./td&&simple& theme=&images/simple&center&
&0&/td width=&td colspan=&center&
&lt.action&#&delete&
&tr align=&td align=&td align=&&&#47.;tr&/&selectEquipmentList&tr align=&td align=&tr&gt:xx&s:iterator&&#47./6&
&上一页&bluef&&
background=&;&&/
&images//修改&simple&tr&&td&&center&center&共5页&center&&userequipment&&center&&
height=&a href=&/&当前页;
&备注&dataTable&td align=&quot./td width=&&&姓名&body&table width=&center& class=&删除设备&&center&& theme=&&td&tr&777&quot.;td align=&quot:iterator value=&&center&#&3&
&td colspan=&
&lt.;&lt.gif&775&quot:textfield name=&right&/
&td&/第一页&/序号&
&td&&gt.jpg&硬件查询& /
&0&&&& width=&//a href=&& class=&equipmentId&&center&
&td&td&s:textfield name=&&company_02;simple&38&&/ align=&s;&&title2&&/viewId&quot:textfield name=& &//; border=&修改设备&
theme=&images/&
& / valign=&我在action中拿不到equipmentId;td& theme=&td align=&&&left&&img src=&
&&s;& height=&a href=& class=&/center&
&&/simple&quot:submit&&#47:form action=&删除&&//td align=&/td align=&
&&&& class=&tr&s;&10&770&body&gt:form&
& //s; method=&&
&28&/s;&&left&center&#&/a&gt，我想对一行进行操作&lt===========突袭网收集的解决方案如下===========
解决方案1：hidden value=&equipment&s;&s:iterator value=&在form中加一行&/&#equipment.equipmentid'selectEquipmentList&s; id=&quot:property value=' &gt&lt解决方案2：不行啊，报错严重: Servlet.service() for servlet jsp threw exceptionorg.apache.jasper.JasperException: /item/userequipment.jsp(44,22) quote symbol expected at org.piler.DefaultErrorHandler.jspError(DefaultErrorHandler.java:40)解决方案3：你检查下是不是变量 属性等的名有没有写错解决方案4：隐藏域靠谱解决方案5：&gt。你先看你的equipmentId是不是属于一个实体类,set方法了没;s:property value=&quot，如果不是实体类的属性只是传的值的话; /equipmentId&的equipmentId值的话，你看看你的实体类在action是否定义给get，那么证明你从action过来的时候是对的是想action传的时候出现问题，如果是一个实体类里面的属性的话如果你页面上能够显示出来&lt解决方案6：private Integer equipmentId;有get、set，就是 拿不到，我试试楼上的说的。解决方案7：你的equipmentId是输出形式的那么证明你进入之前肯定equipmentId中或者存在值或者是s:iterator的index值来表明这是第几行
，因为你的列名“ 序号 ”就可以看出来
但是你这按楼上的话 只能证明 你这个就是equipment实体类的id属性了 那你还定义那个private Integer equipmentId;就没意义了啊 直接定义private E不就行了
12345678910struts2标签的使用总结
在struts2中有着一套像html一样的标签，俗称struts2标签，大多数公司使用ssh都是使用html标签，但为了保持项目的统一性，有的公司还是使用的struts2的标签，下面是一些常用的struts2标签：
a标签创建一个HTML超链接，等价于HTML
的&a& href=""....
示范代码：
href="login.action"&登陆&/s:a&
使用action标签 可以允许在JSP页面中直接调用Action。
范例如下：
name="tag2"&
executeResult="false"&/&
&actionerror&
这个标签负责输出错误信息到客户端。
示范代码：
Action代码如下：
public String execute()
addActionError("第一条错误消息！");&
addActionError("第二条错误消息！");&
JSP中：&s:actionerror/&
&actionmessage&
这个标签负责输出提示信息到客户端，例子如下：
Action代码如下：
public String execute()
addActionMessage("第一条普通消息！");&
addActionMessage("第二条普通消息！");&
&& return SUCCESS;
JSP：&s:actionmessage /&
用来做iterator标签的辅助，将不同iterator中的内容合在一个iterator中。
id="myAppendIterator"&
&s:param value="%{myList1}" /&
&s:param value="%{myList2}" /&
&s:param value="%{myList3}" /&
&/s:append&
&s:iterator
value="%{#myAppendIterator}"&
&s:property /&
&/s:iterator&
bean标签&用于创建一个JavaBean的实例。
示范样例：
name="lee.Person"& id=“p”&
&!--使用Param标签为lee。Person类的实例传入参数--&
&s:param&&
name="name"&
value="'yeeku'"/&
&s:param&&
name="age"&&
value="29"/&
&checkbox&
checkbox标签输出一个HTML复选框，等价于HTML代码：&input
type="checkbox" .../&。
示范代码：
&s:checkbox&label="性别"&name="user.sex"&value="true"&fieldValue="dddd"/&&
&checkboxlist&
标签输出一个复选框。
&s:checkboxlist name="interest"
list="{'足球','篮球','排球','游泳'}" label="兴趣爱好"/&
&select id="inservicemajor"
name="talent.inservicemajor"&&/select&
combobox标签生成一个单行文本框和下拉列表框的结合。
示范代码：
&s:combobox label="请选择您喜欢的图书" theme="css_xhtml"
labelposition="top"
&&&&&&&&list="{'Spring2.0'
, 'J2EE' , 'Ajax'}"
&&&&&&&&size="20"
maxlength="20" name="book"/&
&conponent&
conponent标签用于使用自定义标签。因为使用自定义组件还是基于主题，模板管理的，因此在使用component标签，常常需要指定如下3个属性：
theme：自定义组件所使用的主题，默认使用xhtml主题。
templateDir：指定自定义组件的主题目录，默认使用系统的主题目录，即template目录。
template：指定自定义组件所使用的模板。
示范代码：
&s:component
template="mytemplate.jsp"&
&s:param name="list" value="{'Spring2.0' , 'J2EE' ,
'Ajax'}" /&
&/s:component&
date标签 用于格式化输入一个日期，还可以计算指定日期和当前时刻之间的时差。
示范代码：
&s:date&&name="#attr.now"&&
format="dd/MM/yyyy"&
nice=“true”/&
datetimepicker&
datetimepicker标签就是生成一个有日期控件的文本输入框。它有一个前提就是要在&head&&/head&内加一个"&s:head
theme="ajax"
/&"，然后可以在form内加上该标签。&
示范代码：
&s:datetimepicker&name="user.birthday"&label="出生日期"&value="%{''}"/&
debug标签主要用于辅助测试，它在页面上生成一个超链接，通过该链接可以查看ValueStack和Stack Context
中的所有值信息。
使用debug标签只有一个id属性，这个属性仅仅是该元素一个引用id。
在页面上增加&s:debug/&标签，通过debug标签，可以看的系统中ValueStack离得全部信息，并可以看到Stack
Context中的属性。
示范代码：
&s:debug&&/s:debug&
//直接在jsp页面上面添加这样的标签，就可以生产一个查看debug信息的链接
div是struts2
ajax中最基础的标签，其他的标签均和div有关系。div的最大的用途就是可以异步的更新div中的内容。这里写一些div基本的应用，其他的等写别的标签的时候再写。
示范代码：
&s:div href="%{url}"&Initial
Content&/sx:div&
&!--最简单的例子，从指定的url获取信息更新自己的内容--&
&doubleselect&
doubleselect标签输出关联的两个HTML列表框，产生联动效果。
&s:doubleselect
label="请选择所在省市" name="province" list="provinces" listKey="id"
listValue="name" doubleList="cities"
doubleListKey="id" doubleListValue="name"
doubleName="city" headerKey="-1"
headerValue="--- 请选择 ---"
emptyOption="true" /&
else标签用来控制基本的条件处理流程，通常和if、elseif标签连用。
&s:if test="%{false}"&
&div&Will Not Be
Executed&/div&
&s:elseif test="%{true}"&
&div&Will Be
Executed&/div&
&/s:elseif&
&div&Will Not Be
Executed&/div&
&/s:else&&
elseif标签用来控制基本的条件处理流程，通常和if标签连用。
test="%{false}"&
...&/s:if&
test="%{true}"&
&div&Will Be
Executed&/div&
&/s:elseif&
...&/s:else&
&fielderror&
fielderror标签输出action的fieldErrors属性保存的字段错误，fieldErrors是一个map类型的属性。
示范代码：
&s:fielderror/&
file标签输出一个HTML文件选择框，等价于html代码：&input
type="file" .../&。
示范代码：
&s:file name="uploadfile" accept="text/*"
&s:file name="uploadfile"
accept="text/html,text/plain" /&
form标签输出一个HTML from
&s:form action="exampleSubmit"
method="post"
enctype="multipart/form-data"&&
&s:submit&&
&s:reset&&
可以上传文件的form。&
generator&
使用generator标签可以将指定字符串按指定分隔符分成多个子串，临时生成的多个子串可以使用iterator标签来迭代输出。可以这样理解：generator将一个字符串转化成一个集合。在该标签的标签体内，整个临时生成的集合将位于ValueStack的顶端，蛋一旦该标签结束，该集合将被移出ValueStack。
head标签主要用于成生HTML主要页面的HEAD部分。国为有些主题需要包含特定的CSS和javascript代码，而该标签则用于生成对这此CSS和javaScript代码的引用。
示范代码：
&title&page
hidden标签输出一个HTML隐藏表单元素，等价于HTML代码：&input
type="hidden" .../&。
在xhtml主题下，hidden标签与其他的标签不一样，hidden标签并不输出表行。xhtml主题直接从simple主题继承了
hidden.ftl模板。
示范代码：
&s:hidden name="id"
value="s"/&
该标签用于加载资源包到值堆栈。它可以允许text标志访问任何资源包的信息，而不只当前action相关联的资源包。
示范代码：
name="ApplicationMessages"&&
&s:text name="HelloWorld"
&/s:i18n&&
If标签用来控制基本的条件处理流程，通常和else标签或者elseif标签连用。
test="%{false}"&
&div&Will Not Be
Executed&/div&
include标签&用于将一个JSP页面，或者一个Servlet包含到本页面中。
示范代码：
&h2&使用s:include标签来包含目标页面&/h2&
&s:include&&
value="include-file.jsp"/&
&!--使用include标签来包含其他页面，并且传入参数--&
&s:include&&
value="include-file.jsp"&
&s:param&&name="author"&
value="'yeeku'"&/&
&/s:include&
&inputtransferselect&
获取form的一个输入
&iterator&
迭代处理一个java.util.Connection或者java.util.Iterator对象
&s:iterator value="users"
status="userStatus"&
&&s:property value="fullName"
test="!#userStatus.last"&,&/s:if&
&/s:iterator&
xhtml主题下的label 标签输出两个
HTML的label标签（simple主题下的label标签只输出一个HTML
label标签）。分别位于一行的两列，左列的label标签器提示作用，右列的label标签用于显示只读的action属性数据。
示范代码：
&s:label label="用户名"
name="user.username"/&
合并遍历集合出来的值,与&s:append&标签用法相似。
id="list"&
&&&&&s:param
value="#request.list1"/&
&&&&&s:param
value="#request.list2"/&
&&&&&s:param
value="#request.list3"/&
&&&&&s:param
value="#request.list4"/&
&&&&/s:merge&
&&&&s:iterator
value="%{list}"&
&&&&&&&&&s:property/&&br&&
&&&&/s:iterator&
optgroup标签用于生成一个下拉列表框的选项组，因此，该标签必须放在&s:select&标签中使用，一个下拉列表框中可以包含多个选项组，因此可以在一个&s:select&标签中使用多个&s:optgroup&标签。
&s:select label="选择您喜欢的图书"
name="book"
list="#{'Spring2.0':'李刚','J2EE':'李','Ajax宝典':'李'}"
listKey="value"
&listValue="key"&
&& &s:optgroup
label="Rod Johnson"
&&&&&&&&&&
list="#{'Expert One-on-One J2EE Design and
Development':'Johnson'}"
listKey="value"
listValue="key"/&
&& &s:optgroup
label="David Flanagan"
&&&&&&&&&&
list="#{'JavaScript: The Definitive Guide':'David'}"
listKey="value"
listValue="key"/&
&/s:select&
optiontransferselect&
optiontransferselect标签创建一个选项转移列表组建，它由两个&select&标签以及它们之间的用于将选项在两个&select&之间相互移动的按钮组成。表单提交时，将提交两个列表框中选中的选项。
示范代码：
&s:optiontransferselect
label="最喜爱的图书"
name="javaBook"
list="{'《Java Web开发详解》', '《Struts 2深入详解》', '《Java快速入门》'}"
doubleName="cBook"
doubleList="{'《VC++深入详解》', '《C++ Primer》',
'《C++程序设计语言》'}"/&
param标签 主要用于为其他标签提供参数
name="color"& value="blue" /&
这里color参数的值是，blue对象的值----如果blue对象不存在，则color为null。
&s:password&标签类同于HTML的&input
type=”password”
…&，其name和label类同于&s:textfield&
&s:password&name="password"
label="密码"/&&
property标签用于输出值栈中的对象的属性值，使用value属性来指定要输出的对象属性，如果没有指定value属性，那么默认输出栈顶对象。
&s:property value="username"
default="游客"/&
取出栈顶对象（通常是action）的username
属性并输出，如果没有找到username属性，那么输出“游客”。
push标签用于将某个值放到ValueStack的栈顶，可以跟简单的访问该值。
示范样例：
name="lee.Person"& id="p"&
&s:param&&
name="age"& value="29"/&
value="#p"&
&s:property&&
value="name"/&
&s:propery&&
value="age"/&
radio标签的用法与checkboxlist的用法几乎完全相同，一样可以指定label, list,
listKey, listValue等属性。
示范代码：
&s:radio name="c" label="请选择您喜欢的图书"
labelposition="top"
list="#bs.books"
listKey="author"
listValue="name"/&
reset标签输出一个重置按钮。
示范代码：
value="重置"&&/s:reset&
type="button"&label="重置"&&/s:reset&
标签输出一个下拉列表框，相当于HTML代码中的&select/&
示范代码：
&s:select label="最高学历" name="education"
list="{'高中','大学','硕士','博士'}"/&
set标签是将某个值放到指定范围内， 比如说 student.teacher.parent.age
每次访问这个属性不仅性能低，而且代码可读性很差，为了解决这个问题，可以将这个值设置为一个新值，并且放入指定范围内。
使用示范：
&s:set value="#p" name="test"/&
&s:property value="#test.name"/&
&s:property value="#test.age"/&
对一个可以迭代的对象进行排序操作。
&s:sort comparator="myComparator"
source="myList"&
&s:iterator&
&!-- do something with each sorted elements
&s:property value="..." /&
&/s:iterator&
Submit标签输出一个按钮，submit标签和form标签使用可以提供异步表单提交功能。Submit标签可以输出以下三种类型的提交按钮：
Input：&等价于&HTML代码&input
type=”submit”&
Image：&等价于&HTML代码&&input
type="image"&
Button：&button
type="submit"&&/button&
示范代码：
value="登陆"&&/s:submit&
递归iterator的一部分。
source="myList"&
&s:iterator&
&s:property /&
&/s:iterator&
&/s:subset&
tabbedPanel&
&s:tabbedPanel&标签，用来在HTML页面中生成类似于Windows程序的Tab页，从而可以在有限的空间中放置更多的内容。tabbedPanel标签生成的Tab页的内容可以是静态的，也可以是动态的。
示范代码：
&s:tabbedPanel id="tp1" closeButton="pane"
theme="ajax" doLayout="true"
selectedTab="second"&&&&&labelposition="left"&
id="first" label="第一个div" theme="ajax"&
&&&静态的DIV
&&&/s:div&
name="second" label="第二个div" theme="ajax" href="%{T}"
updateFreq="6000" delay="3000"&
&&&3:每六秒钟刷新一次，但有三秒延迟
&&&/s:div&
&/s:tabbedPanel&
用于输出国际化消息，和i18n结合使用。
示范代码：
name="ApplicationMessages"&&
&s:text name="HelloWorld"
&/s:i18n&&
Textarea标签输出一个HTML多行文本输入控件，等价于HTML代码：&textarea
示范代码：
&s:textarea
name="personal"&cols="10"&rows="5"&label="个人简历"&&/s:textarea&
textfield&
Textfield标签输出一个HTML单行文本输入控件，等价于HTML代码&input
type="text"&
示范代码：
&s:form action="register"
method="post"&
&s:textfield name="username"
label="用户名"&&/s:textfield&
token标签是用于防止多次提交的标签。避免了刷新页面时多次提交，如果需要该标签起作用，则应该在Struts2的配置文件中启用TokenInterceptor拦截器或TokenSessionStoreInterceptor拦截器。
示范代码：
&s:token/&
tree和treenode标签可以在页面生成一个树形结构，其中tree生成一个树形结构，treenode生成一个树节点。
示范代码：
&s:tree label="图书" id="book"
theme="ajax"
showRootGrid="true" showGrid="true"
treeSelectedTopic="treeSelected"&
&s:treenode theme="ajax" label="David"
id="David"&
&&&&&&s:treenode
theme="ajax" label="JavaScript: The Definitive Guide"
id="javascript"/&
&/s:treenode&
tree和treenode标签可以在页面生成一个树形结构，其中tree生成一个树形结构，treenode生成一个树节点。
示范代码：
&s:tree label="图书" id="book"
theme="ajax"
showRootGrid="true" showGrid="true"
treeSelectedTopic="treeSelected"&
&s:treenode theme="ajax" label="David"
id="David"&
&&&&&&s:treenode
theme="ajax" label="JavaScript: The Definitive Guide"
id="javascript"/&
&/s:treenode&
updownselect&
updownselect标签创建一个带有上下移动的按钮的列表框，可以通过上下移动按钮来调整列表框的选项的位置。
示范代码：
&s:updownselect name="a" label="请选择您喜欢的图书"
labelposition="top"
moveUpLabel="向上移动"
list="{'Spring2.0宝典' , '轻量级J2EE企业应用实战' , 'JavaScript: The
Definitive Guide'}"/&
用于生成一个URL地址，可以通过param向url标签指定参数，从而指定URL发送请求参数。
示范代码：
指定action属性，且使用param传入参数的形式
&s:url&&action="showbook"&
name="author"&
value="'yeeku'"&
已投稿到：
以上网友发言只代表其个人观点，不代表新浪网的观点或立场。From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article has multiple issues. Please help
or discuss these issues on the .
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with common law and do not represent a
of the subject. Please
and discuss the issue on the . (December 2010)
This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of , , or . (June 2009)
Wrongful birth is a legal cause of action in some
countries in which the parents of a congenitally diseased child claim that their doctor failed to properly warn of their risk of conceiving or giving birth to a child with serious genetic or congenital abnormalities. Thus, the plaintiffs claim, the defendant prevented them from making a truly informed decision as to whether or not to have the child. Wrongful birth is a type of medical malpractice tort. It is distinguished from , in which the child sues the doctor.
The elements of a wrongful birth claim are:[]
the existence of a patient-doctor relationship between the defenda
the doctor negligently failed to disclose to the prospective parents the risk of having a child with a genetic o
the pla and
the doctor’s negligence caused that harm.
The plaintiff must establish the existence of a patient-doctor relationship by showing that the doctor gave the plaintiff a medical diagnosis or medical advice.
In a wrongful birth case the plaintiff must show that the doctor failed follow the standard of care with respect the diagnosis or disclosure of the plaintiffs’ risk of transmitting genetic or congenital abnormalities to their children.
If the plaintiffs allege that the defendant failed to properly diagnose the plaintiffs’ risk of passing on a genetic disorder or other abnormality, then the plaintiffs must put forth expert testimony as to the standard of care for the diagnosis at issue. Lay juries do not have the necessary knowledge of medical practice to evaluate the conduct of doctors without the assistance of an expert witness.
If the plaintiffs allege that the defendant failed to disclose the risk of conceiving a child with an abnormality, then the plaintiffs must show that the doctor had the duty to make the disclosure at issue. Doctors are under an obligation to disclose to their patients the risks of passing on a genetic condition to their prospective children. However, the doctor need not disclose all risks or recommend all available testing procedures. For example, in the case of Munro v. Regents of the University of California, the court held that the doctor was not under an obligation to recommend a Tay-Sachs test when the doctor had no reason to suspect his patients were at any more at risk for
that the general population, when the risk of Tay-Sachs among the general population was between 1 in 200 and 1 in 300, and when the Tay-Sachs test was "generally useless" for the vast majority of patients.
The plaintiffs may also prove the negligence element by showing that the doctor failed to properly disclose the availability of genetic or prenatal screening procedures. As in other failure to disclose cases, the plaintiff will need to show that doctor owed a duty to make the disclosures at issue.
The plaintiffs in a wrongful birth case may claim that their harms consist in having a child with an undesired abnormality and/or in having been denied the opportunity to make a fully informed choice as to whether to conceive or to abort the fetus.
In the past, plaintiffs have had to prove cause by showing that if the defendant had not been negligent, the child would have been normal. Under this standard, the defendant may argue that even if he failed to diagnose an existing fetus with a genetic or developmental abnormality, he did not cause the parents or fetus to have mutated genes or the fetus to develop the abnormality. Once the fetus is determined to have an abnormality, the doctor may not be able to treat the fetus, making the abnormality inevitable. If the doctor fails to diagnose the plaintiff’s risk of transmitting a genetic disease, or fails to inform the plaintiff of that risk, then it is the combination of the parents’ genetic mutations and choice to have a child that most directly results in the conception of an abnormal child. Because of difficulties in proving cause under this standard some courts disallowed wrongful birth suits.
More recently, plaintiffs have been able to prove the causation element by showing that the defendant’s negligence deprived them of the opportunity to fully consider the choice whether or not to conceive or abort their fetus. However, the plaintiffs must still prove that had the doctor acted properly they would have declined to conceive or would have aborted their abnormal fetus. This standard for causation has allowed plaintiffs to more easily prove the causation element. Still, the plaintiffs’ claim that they would not have had an abnormal child is in some ways speculative. The decision whether or not to conceive given the risk of bearing an abnormal child would likely to be difficult and emotional, with an unpredictable outcome, as would the decision to abort an abnormal fetus. Additionally, some defendants have argued that the tort is subject to fraudulent claims, as proof of the claim that the plaintiffs would have aborted an abnormal fetus would often come in the form of the plaintiff’s retrospective and subjective testimony.
Most courts now only allow only the costs associated with raising an abnormal child, such as medical care that would not be needed for a healthy child. Thus, most courts do not allow the recovery of all costs associated with raising the plaintiffs’ child. Some courts have ruled that plaintiffs may recover additional damages, such as those for emotional distress, loss of consortium, and physical pain suffered by the wife during delivery of an unhealthy child. See the example of the Keel case below.
Recently, in a competition named: "Gicelter" of the Association of Medicine and Law, the Israeli researcher winner: Mr. Don Sosunov has developed an economic model showing that the change in the probability of loss for procreation tort claim is inversely proportional to the amount of procedures being taken to treat the child.
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with USA and do not represent a
of the subject. Please
and discuss the issue on the . (December 2010)
Twenty-five U.S. states now recognize the wrongful birth cause of action.
However, some states have statutorily banned wrongful birth actions. See for example Idaho Code §5-334(1): "A cause of action shall not arise, and damages shall not be awarded, on behalf of any person, based on the claim that but for the act or omission of another, a person would not have been permitted to have been born alive but would have been aborted."
There is some controversy as to whether or not the wrongful birth cause of action should be recognized.
Allowing the wrongful birth cause of action may increase the rate of , a practice some consider unethical. Doctors under threat of being sued for wrongful birth have an incentive to be vigilant in detecting the risk that prospective parents will have a congenitally diseased child, in disclosing any risks to the prospective parents, and in recommending various tests to determine the risk or existence a congenital abnormality.[] Thus, more prospective parents will become aware of that their fetuses have congenital abnormalities, giving them reason to abort.
Most disability activists consider these actions to be unethical and indicative of social intolerance toward disabled individuals. For instance, in 2012, several disability rights organizations wrote a letter to the ACLU protesting its language in support of wrongful birth lawsuits. It is generally felt that allowing wrongful birth lawsuits for things like Down Syndrome and Spina Bifida sends a clear message that such individuals should not be born.
The prospective parents of any child have an autonomy interest in making informed decisions about whether or not to procreate. Many prospective parents might want to know if they are at high risk for passing a genetic disease to their offspring. They also might want to know whether their fetus has some kind of congenital abnormality. A doctor who fails to adequately disclose the risk that his patients might have an abnormal child, or who fails to properly diagnose an abnormal fetus, is depriving the prospective parents of the chance to make a fully informed procreative decision. In light of the great importance many people place on their procreative decisions and the care with which they make them, a doctor whose negligence interferes with those decisions should be held responsible for the consequences of that negligence.[]
In the case of Keel v. Banach the plaintiffs were a man and his pregnant wife, who both sought to avoid having a child with genetic or developmental abnormalities. The man’s previous stillborn child had a spinal cord defect and other abnormalities known to have a hereditary basis, placing the man at increased risk of fathering a second child with such abnormalities. The defendant was an obstetrician who performed several sonograms on the woman and her developing fetus. The defendant did not detect any abnormalities and assured the parents that their child was developing normally. However, the child was born with a variety of severe congenital abnormalities, requiring multiple surgeries. The child died at the age of six.
The parents sued on a theory of wrongful birth. The court ruled "the parents of a congenitally defective child may maintain an action for its wrongful birth if the birth was the result of the negligent failure of the attending physician to discover and inform them of the existence of fetal defects." The plaintiffs could recover for any medical expenses caused by the defendant’s negligence as well as for the physical pain of the wife, loss of consortium and mental and emotional suffering.
is a legal cause of action in which a congenitally-diseased child sues the doctor, claiming that but for the negligence of the doctor, the child would not have been born into a life of pain and suffering. The child claims he or she would have been better off never having been born than having been born with a congenital disease. Unlike wrongful birth causes of action, most states do not recognize the wrongful life cause of action. Some courts have reasoned that wrongful life claims call for the court to answer a metaphysical question better left to philosophers: whether it is better never to be born than to be born with a congenital disease. However, some courts, starting with California, have recognized the wrongful life claim. The
held in 1980 that "a reverent appreciation of life compels recognition that [a wrongful life] plaintiff, however impaired she may be, has come into existence as a living person with certain rights" – i.e. the right to recover against a doctor whose negligence resulted in her disease. In 1982, the
largely endorsed and adopted the Court of Appeal's holding in a different case but limited the child's recovery to special damages.
In a wrongful conception case, the plaintiffs claim that their doctor negligently performed a , , or other sterilization procedure, resulting in an
and/or birth. The resulting child is usually healthy, though unwanted.
In a wrongful adoption case, the plaintiffs are adoptive parents of an unhealthy child, who claims that the adoption agency failed to disclose facts necessary for the plaintiffs to make an informed decision about what child to adopt, such as the background, health or genetic status of potential adoptees.
Wrongful Birth Action,
(3rd ed. 2006)
Keel v. Banach, 624 So.2d -29 (Ala. 1993).
Munro v. Regents of the University of California, 263 Cal.Rptr. 878, 882 (Cal.App. 1989).
Munro v. Regents of the University of California, 263 Cal.Rptr. 878, 882 (Cal.App. 1989). at 884 - 85.
Lori B. Andrews, Torts and the Double Helix: Malpractice Liability for Failure to Warn of Genetic Risk, 29 Hous. L. Rev. 149, 154 (1992).
Kelly E. Rhinehart, The Debate Over Wrongful Birth and Wrongful Life, 26 Law & Psychol. Rev. 141, 147 (2002).
Keel, 624 So.2d at 1029.
Rhinehart, supra, at 147.
Keel, 624 So.2d at 1028.
Andrews, supra, at 156-157.
Sorrel, Amy Lynn (Nov 10, 2008). . American Medical Association. case law in about 25 states recognizes wrongful birth claims.
Andrews, supra, at 160 n. 54.
Idaho Code Ann. § 5-334(1) (2008)
Keel, 624 So.2d at 1023 - 24.
Keel, 624 So.2d at 1029.
Keel, 624 So.2d at 1030.
Rhinehart, supra, at 155-156.
Viccaro v. Milunsk, 551 N.E.2d 8, 12 (Mass. 1990).
Speck v. Feingold, 268 Pa. Super. 342, 364-65 (Pa. 1979).
Curlender v. Bio-Science Laboratories, 165 Cal.Rptr. 477, 488 (Cal.App. 1980).
Turpin v. Sortini,
Miller v. Johnson, 231 Va. 177, 182 (Va.1986).
Amanda Trefethen, The Emerging Tort of Wrongful Adoption, 11 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 620, 622 (2000).
Keel v. Banach, 624 So.2d 1022 (Ala. 1993).
Munro v. Regents of the University of California, 263 Cal.Rptr. 878 (Cal.App. 1989).
Lori B. Andrews, Torts and the Double Helix: Malpractice Liability for Failure to Warn of Genetic Risk, 29 Hous. L. Rev. 149 (1992).
Kelly E. Rhinehart, The Debate Over Wrongful Birth and Wrongful Life, 26 Law & Psychol. Rev. 141 (2002).
Idaho Code Ann. §5-334(1) (2008).
Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927).
Viccaro v. Milunsk, 551 N.E.2d 8 (Mass. 1990).
Speck v. Feingold, 268 Pa. Super. 342, 364-65 (Pa. 1979).
'Curlender v. Bio-Science Laboratories, 165 Cal.Rptr. 477 (Cal.App. 1980).
Miller v. Johnson, 231 Va. 177 (Va. 1986).
"eugenics."
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 5 May 2009. &&.
(3d ed. 2006).
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